Tafsir of Al-Baqarah 2:164

Tafsir of Surah Al-Baqarah, Verse 164

Verse 164:

إِنَّ فِي خَلْقِ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَاخْتِلَافِ اللَّيْلِ وَالنَّهَارِ وَالْفُلْكِ الَّتِي تَجْرِي فِي الْبَحْرِ بِمَا يَنفَعُ النَّاسَ وَمَا أَنزَلَ اللَّهُ مِنَ السَّمَاءِ مِن مَّاءٍ فَأَحْيَا بِهِ الْأَرْضَ بَعْدَ مَوْتِهَا وَبَثَّ فِيهَا مِن كُلِّ دَابَّةٍ وَتَصْرِيفِ الرِّيَاحِ وَالسَّحَابِ الْمُسَخَّرِ بَيْنَ السَّمَاءِ وَالْأَرْضِ لَآيَاتٍ لِّقَوْمٍ يَعْقِلُونَ

After establishing the Oneness (Fardaniyyah and Wahdaniyyah) of God, the Almighty mentions eight types of signs (dalā’il) that point to His existence first, and then to His absolute Oneness, being free from opposites, peers, or rivals. Before delving into these signs, several foundational issues must be clarified.

Issue 1: Is Khalq (Creation) the Creature Itself or Something Else?

People differed on whether Khalq refers to the created object (makhluq) or an act distinct from it.

Argument that Khalq is the Makhluq (The Creature Itself):

1. Textual Evidence (The Verse Itself): The verse states, "Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth..." Since signs (āyāt) can only exist in created things, Khalq must refer to the created things themselves.
2. Rational Arguments (Ma‘qūl):
   • Definition of Creation: Creation is bringing something from non-existence to existence. If this act of bringing forth were separate from God's Power and Effect, it would either be eternal (qadīm) or created (ḥādith).
     • If eternal, then the bringing forth from non-existence would have existed eternally. But eternity negates being preceded by anything, so this leads to a contradiction (the impossible coexistence of opposites).
     • If created, this act of bringing forth requires another act of bringing forth, leading to an infinite regress (tasalsul).
   • God’s State in Eternity: In eternity, God was not bringing things into existence. If He created an act (amr) then, that created act would be the makhluq. If He created nothing, then God has never created anything.
   • The Relation of Causality: Causality (mu’aththiriyyah) is a relation between the essence of the cause (God) and the essence of the effect. If this relation were created, it would lead to infinite regress. If it were eternal, it would be a necessary attribute of God’s essence. The resulting effect would then necessarily follow from this eternal attribute, meaning the effect itself would be a necessary attribute of God’s essence, not a result of His free will. This would imply God is compelled to create, making Him a necessary cause (ʻillah mūjibah), which is disbelief (kufr).

Argument that Khalq is distinct from the Makhluq (The Act of Creation):

1. God’s Description: God is described as Khāliq (Creator) even before creating things. If Khalq were the creature, God would be described by the creatures, including devils and impurities, which no rational person would assert.
2. Causality of Events: When we see an event occur after non-existence, we attribute its occurrence to God's creation. If we were told the event created itself, we would deem it false and contradictory. Since attributing the event's existence to God's Khalq is correct, while attributing it to the event's self-existence is false, God's Khalq must be distinct from the existence of the thing itself.
3. Distinction in Knowledge: We know human actions, and we know God’s Power, yet we do not know whether God’s Power or the servant’s power is the effective agent in the servant’s actions. The causality of the powerful agent upon the caused effect is distinct from the power itself and the effect itself. This causality cannot be merely negative (absence of something else); it must be a positive attribute (ṣifah thubūtiyyah) added to both the cause and the effect, which is what is sought.
4. Grammatical Evidence: Grammarians state that when we say, "God created the world," the world (al-ʿālam) is the object (mafʿūl bihi), not the source (maṣdar). This indicates that the act of creation is distinct from the created world.
5. Universality of the Concept: It is valid to say "creation of blackness," "creation of whiteness," "creation of substance," and "creation of accident." The concept of Khalq is singular and distinct from these varied essences, as evidenced by the valid division of Khāliqiyyah (creative power) into the creation of substance and the creation of accident. The subject of division (mūrid al-taqsīm) must be common to all divisions, proving Khalq is distinct from the Makhluq.

Issue 2: The Linguistic Root of Khalq

Abu Muslim (al-Isfahani) stated that the original meaning of Khalq in Arabic is estimation or measure (taqdīr). It became the name for God's actions because all of them are perfectly correct and measured. This is supported by the verse: {وَخَلَقَ كُلَّ شَيْءٍ فَقَدَّرَهُ تَقْدِيرًا} (And He created everything and measured it with a precise measure). People use the term taqdīr for any well-ordered, precise matter.

Issue 3: Necessity of Rational Proof

This verse proves that one must use rational proofs (dalā’il ‘aqlīyah) to establish the existence of the Creator; mere imitation or adherence to tradition (taqlīd) is not a valid path to this goal.

Issue 4: Occasion of Revelation (Asbāb al-Nuzūl)

Ibn Jarir narrated that when the Prophet (PBUH) arrived in Medina, the verse {وَإِلَٰهُكُمْ إِلَٰهٌ وَاحِدٌ} (Your God is one God) was revealed. The Quraysh disbelievers in Mecca objected, asking how one God could suffice for all people. Then, this verse ({إِنَّ فِي خَلْقِ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ...}) was revealed to show them the signs.

Another narration states that the Quraysh asked the Jews for signs brought by Moses, and then asked the Christians about the signs of Jesus (healing the blind, lepers, raising the dead). The Quraysh then asked the Prophet (PBUH) to ask God to turn Mount Safa into gold to increase their certainty against their enemies. The Prophet prayed, and God revealed that the creation of the heavens and the earth, and all mentioned therein, is a far greater sign than turning Safa into gold.

The discussion of these eight signs is divided into sections.

Sign 1: The States of the Heavens (Samāwāt)

We have previously touched upon this in the exegesis of verse 22. Here, we present another perspective.

It is related that when scholars were studying Ptolemy's Al-Majisti (Almagest), one jurist asked what they were studying. They replied they were interpreting the verse: {أَفَلَمْ يَنظُرُوا إِلَى السَّمَاءِ فَوْقَهُمْ كَيْفَ بَنَيْنَاهَا وَزَيَّنَّاهَا} (Do they not look at the heaven above them—how We constructed it and adorned it?). The scholar affirmed that the deeper one delves into God's creation, the greater their knowledge of His majesty.

The discussion on the heavens is summarized in chapters:

Chapter 1: The Arrangement of the Spheres (Aflāk) The established order, from lowest to highest, is: the sphere of the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the fixed stars, and finally, the Primum Mobile (the Greatest Sphere).

Research Point 1: Methods for Determining this Order

1. Occultation (Eclipsing): When a lower planet passes between us and a higher one, they appear as a single body. The moving planet is distinguished by its dominant color (e.g., Mercury’s yellowish tint, Venus’s whiteness, Mars’s redness, Jupiter’s brilliance, Saturn’s darkness). The Moon eclipses the six planets and many fixed stars. Mercury eclipses Venus, and Venus eclipses Mars, suggesting this order. However, this method fails to definitively place the Sun, as the Sun is not eclipsed by any planet due to the overwhelming brightness of its own light.
2. Parallax (Ikhtilāf al-Manẓar): Parallax is observable for the Moon, Mercury, and Venus, but not for Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. It is minimal for the Sun. This suggests the Sun is intermediate between these two groups. This method is clear to those who observe parallax, but others must rely on tradition. (Al-Rayḥānī, a master of this science, noted in his summary of Al-Farghani that parallax is only sensed for the Moon.)
3. Ptolemy's Argument: Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars are always observed at various distances from the Sun. Mercury and Venus never recede from the Sun beyond a certain angular separation (sextant/60 degrees). This implies the Sun is intermediate. This argument is weak because it is refuted by the Moon, which recedes from the Sun by all possible distances yet is positioned below all planets.

Research Point 2: The Number of Spheres They assert there are only nine spheres. We affirm the nine spheres confirmed by observation. Regarding anything beyond these, since observation yields no evidence, we neither affirm nor deny their existence. Ibn Sīnā questioned in Al-Shifā’ whether the sphere of fixed stars is a single sphere or multiple concentric spheres. This possibility exists because the only evidence for its unity is the supposed equality of its motions, which is weak.

• Critique of Motion Equality: While motions appear similar to our senses, they might not be truly equal. If one completes a circuit in 36,000 years and another in slightly less time (by a tenth), the difference over a day or a year would be imperceptible, invalidating the certainty of their motion equality.
• Critique of Unity: Even if motions were equal, it is not certain they must reside in one sphere; different things can share one attribute. Ibn Sīnā’s doubt regarding the sphere of fixed stars applies to all spheres, as the proof for their unity is flawed. Thus, the unity of the daily moving sphere cannot be asserted; it might consist of many spheres with minute, imperceptible differences in motion.

Argument for a Sphere Above the Fixed Stars (Below the Primum Mobile): Some scholars posit a tenth sphere based on:

1. Varying Obliquity of the Ecliptic (Mayl Aʿẓam): Observers found the obliquity varied over time; older observations showed a greater obliquity. This variation implies that the poles of the spheres must shift relative to the poles of the outermost sphere. This requires an intermediate sphere whose poles revolve around the poles of the outermost sphere, causing the poles of the fixed stars sphere to sometimes incline north and sometimes south relative to the horizon.
2. Solar Motion Irregularity: Observers struggled to fix the Sun's path, with Ptolemy citing Hipparchus’s doubt about whether the Sun’s motion was uniform or variable.
   • Explanation 1 (Moving Apogee): Some attribute this to a moving solar apogee, where the variation in distance from the apogee affects the time taken to traverse the equinoxes.
   • Explanation 2 (Precession of the Equinoxes): Others (Indians, Chinese, Babylonians, most ancient Romans, Egyptians, and Syrians) attribute it to the shifting of the zodiacal sphere itself, causing its poles to rise and fall.
3. Fixed Star Motion Discrepancy: Ptolemy observed the fixed stars moved one degree every 100 years, while later observers noted 1.5 degrees per 100 years. This large discrepancy cannot be attributed to observational errors in instruments; it must be due to an increase or decrease in obliquity, necessitating the proposed intermediate sphere.

Research Point 3: Proof for the Fixed Stars Sphere Being Above the Seven Planets They argue: The seven planetary spheres move faster than the fixed stars. Since planets only move via their spheres, the fixed stars must reside in a sphere separate from these seven. It cannot be the Primum Mobile because that sphere moves too fast (one rotation daily). Furthermore, the seven planets eclipse the fixed stars, and the eclipsing body must be below the eclipsed body, placing the seven planetary spheres below the sphere of fixed stars.

• Critique: This is weak. (1) We do not concede that planets only move via their spheres; their arguments against penetration of spheres are weak. (2) Even if other spheres are needed, your system divides the seven spheres into many components (epicycles/deferents). Could the fixed stars reside in the slow-moving components (mumaththalāt)? If so, no separate sphere is needed. (3) If another sphere is needed, why not two—one above Saturn and one below the Moon? Since planets only eclipse stars in their path, stars near the poles are never eclipsed by the planets. If we place the eclipsed stars above Saturn, how do we know the uneclipsed stars are not below the planets? Thus, their claim is speculative, not demonstrative.

Research Point 4: The Speed of the Primum Mobile vs. the Eighth Sphere They claim the Primum Mobile has the fastest motion (nearly one full rotation daily, East to West). The eighth sphere (fixed stars) is the slowest, moving only one degree every 100 years (or 66 years by later scholars), moving West to East (opposite the first motion). This is based on observing the stars moving slowly opposite the daily motion.

• Critique: This is also weak. It is possible the Primum Mobile moves East to West daily, and the eighth sphere also moves East to West daily, but slower by about ten seconds of arc. The resulting difference, accumulated, makes the fixed stars appear to regress slowly Westward. They offer no proof to invalidate this possibility.
• Stronger Proof for the Proposed Model: (1) Demonstrative: If the eighth sphere moved purely opposite the Primum Mobile, then when the Primum Mobile moves in one direction, the eighth sphere must either move in the opposite direction (requiring one body to move in two directions simultaneously—impossible) or cease its own motion (implying cessation of celestial motion, which they reject). (2) Rational: The extreme of motion belongs to the Primum Mobile, and the extreme of rest belongs to the Earth. It is more rational that proximity to the Primum Mobile dictates faster motion, and distance dictates slower motion. The sphere of fixed stars is closest, so its difference from the Primum Mobile is minimal (one degree per century). Saturn is slower than the fixed stars, so its lag is greater (a full rotation difference every 30 years). This continues until the Moon, the slowest, lags by 13 degrees daily, completing its cycle monthly, until it reaches Earth, the furthest, which is in complete rest. Their foundational principles here are flawed and inaccessible to pure reason.

Chapter 2: Knowledge of the Spheres The ancients established two presumptive premises:

1. Celestial motions are uniform, continuous, neither accelerating nor decelerating, and have no retrograde motion.
2. Planets move only by the motion of their sphere.

Based on these, they concluded: The sphere carrying the planet either has the Earth’s center as its center, or it does not.

• If the center is Earth’s center: The planet is either embedded in the sphere's thickness, or embedded in a smaller sphere embedded in the thickness. If the first, the planet’s distance from Earth cannot vary, nor can its apparent size or retrograde motion, as we assumed no variation in the sphere’s motion or the planet’s motion. This leaves two possibilities for the second case:
  • Epicycle (Tadwīr): The planet is embedded in a small, moving sphere (al-jirm al-kuraī) whose center is fixed in the thickness of the main sphere. This causes variations in distance, retrograde motion, and apparent size.
  • Eccentric Sphere (Khārij al-Markaz): The main sphere’s center does not coincide with Earth’s center. This causes variations in distance (the planet is closer in one half of the zodiac and farther in the other) and causes the time taken to traverse the two halves of the zodiac to differ.

Thus, variations in planetary appearance (size, speed, distance) can only be explained by either the Epicycle or the Eccentric Sphere.

Detailed Account of the Nine Spheres (Based on their model):

• Single Sphere: The Primum Mobile and the Sphere of Fixed Stars.
• Divided into Two Spheres: The Sun’s sphere. A second sphere separates from it, having a different center. Their convex surfaces touch at the Apogee (farthest point of the separated sphere), and their concave surfaces touch at the Perigee (nearest point). The Sun’s body is immersed within this structure. The separated sphere is called the Mumaththal (Equant/Deferent), and the eccentric sphere is the Sphere of the Apogee.
• Divided into Three Spheres: The spheres of the superior planets (Mars, Jupiter, Saturn) and Venus. Each has two spheres like the Sun’s, plus a third eccentric sphere where the planet is embedded. The eccentric sphere is called the Hāmil (Carrier).
• Divided into Four Spheres: Mercury and the Moon.
  • Mercury: Has two spheres like the Sun’s. From the second, a third eccentric sphere separates, whose center is outside the centers of the first two. Its distance from the center of the third sphere is half the distance between the centers of the third and second spheres. This separated sphere is the Mudīr (Director), and the carrier sphere is the Hāmil. The epicycle (Tadwīr) is then added, making four spheres in total for Mercury.
  • The Moon: Its sphere divides into two parallel spheres: the larger (al-Mumaththal) and the smaller (al-Mā’il). The Mā’il sphere divides into three spheres like the four planets mentioned above. A final eccentric sphere separates, leaving two complementary layers of differing thickness in the separated sphere.

All these spheres move continuously around their centers until God decrees an end. This knowledge is based on the premises established above, which, if true, would validate these structures.

Chapter 3: Magnitudes of Motion The majority hold that all spheres move East to West, except the Primum Mobile, Mercury’s Director, the Sun’s Mumaththal, the Moon’s Mā’il, and its Director. Eastward motion is called "following motion" (ilā al-tuwālī), and Westward motion is "contrary motion" (ilā khilāf al-tuwālī).

• Primum Mobile (First Motion): Moves rapidly, completing one rotation daily around the world poles, causing rising and setting for all celestial bodies.
• Fixed Stars Sphere (Second Motion/Motion of the Apogee): Moves slowly, one degree every 66 years (according to later scholars) around the poles of the ecliptic. These poles revolve around the world poles via the First Motion. This motion causes the apogees to shift relative to the zodiac.
  • Why Fixed Stars are "Fixed": (1) They are slow compared to the planets, appearing stationary. (2) Planets move toward them, but they do not move toward the planets. (3) Their latitudes are constant. (4) The distances between them are constant, preserving the 48 figures of the constellations. (5) Most nations base their calendars on their rising/setting, which changes only over vast epochs.
• Eccentric Spheres (Motion of the Center): These move daily by specific amounts (e.g., Saturn: $\beta \alpha, Jupiter: \delta \nu \tau, etc.). This is the motion of the centers of the epicycles and the Sun’s center.
• Epicycles (Special Motion/Motion of Deviation): These are the motions of the planets' centers (e.g., Saturn: \nu \rho \chi, Jupiter: \nu \delta \tau$, etc.).

These motions cause various conditions for the planets:

1. Variable Distances (Example: Moon): The Moon exhibits four fixed extreme distances relative to the Earth, based on the combination of its position on the epicycle and the position of the epicycle's center on the eccentric sphere (e.g., nearest distance: 33 times Earth’s radius; farthest: 64 times Earth’s radius).
2. Relation to the Sun:
   • Superior Planets: The distance of their epicycle centers from the apogee of their deferent spheres is always equal to the distance of the Sun’s center from its deferent center. When they are at the apogee, they are "combust" (hidden by the Sun); when at the perigee, they are opposite the Sun.
   • Inferior Planets (Venus/Mercury): Their epicycle centers are always aligned with the Sun. They are at apogee/perigee when in conjunction or opposition with the Sun.
   • Moon: The Sun’s center is always midway between the Moon’s farthest distance and the center of its epicycle.

Chapter 4: How to Infer the Creator from these Celestial States

1. Specific Magnitudes: Each sphere has a specific size, although intellectually, any size (larger or smaller) is possible. The fact that they possess specific, measured sizes necessitates a deliberate planner.
2. Specific Locations (Spaces): Each sphere touches another above it and another below it. Since the sphere is assumed to be uniform, the space above should be as capable of receiving a body as the space below. The fact that each sphere is confined to its specific location necessitates a determiner.
3. Specific Position for the Planet: Each planet occupies a specific recess (maqʿar) within its sphere, while the rest of the sphere is equal in nature. This specific assignment requires a specific assigner.
4. Fixed Poles: Each sphere rotates around two specific poles, while all points on the sphere are equal in nature. The selection of two specific points for the axis necessitates a selector.
5. Differential Speeds: Despite the similarity in their celestial nature, the speeds vary greatly (Primum Mobile daily rotation vs. Fixed Stars sphere moving one degree in 66 years). This contradicts the rational expectation that the largest sphere should move slowest (due to its large orbit) and the smallest fastest (due to its small orbit). This specific arrangement necessitates a wise planner.
6. Eccentric/Epicycle Structure: The separation of the eccentric sphere from the deferent sphere results in two complementary parts (one thick, one thin). The assignment of extreme thickness to one side and extreme thinness to the other, when the nature of the parts is uniform, requires a specific choice by the Selector.
7. Direction of Motion: Motions vary (East to West, West to East, Northward, Southward), yet all directions are equally possible relative to the spheres. This variation requires a director.
8. Initiation of Motion (The Strongest Argument): The celestial bodies are currently moving. They could not have been moving eternally, as motion implies transition from one state to another, contradicting eternity. If they began moving after a period of rest or non-existence, this initiation requires an ancient mover (māḥarīq dīm).
9. Inherent Motion vs. External Mover: If motion were inherent to their physical nature, we should see their physical components separated from the motion. Since we don't, their motion requires an external mover—the Mover of Movers.
10. Order and Wisdom: Is this intricate arrangement built on wisdom or random chance? Randomness is absurd, like claiming a magnificent palace arose from random mixing of dust and water. Since wisdom is evident, the motion must be caused either by the spheres themselves (if they were sentient beings seeking perfection, implying inherent deficiency) or by an overwhelming, conquering director. The latter is the only rational conclusion, aligning with the verse: {رَبَّنَا مَا خَلَقْتَ هَٰذَا بَاطِلًا} (Our Lord, You did not create this aimlessly).
11. Variety in Attributes: They differ in color (yellow, white, red, etc.), fortune/misfortune, gender, diurnal/nocturnal nature, and direction of movement, despite all sharing the nature of transparency and purity. This specific differentiation requires a specific assigner.
12. Interaction (Conflict/Cooperation): If their influence on Earth involves conflict, either one is always dominant (implying the world state is fixed by that one, which is false) or they are equal (implying action is impossible, so the world’s events come from elsewhere). If they cooperate, the world state would be static (which is false). If they alternate between cooperation and conflict, this change in their state requires a subjugating Designer.
13. Corporeality: All bodies are composite, and every composite depends on its parts, which are other than it. Thus, every body is contingent (mumkin) and requires a cause. This contingency, whether at the moment of existence or non-existence, proves the Creator.
14. Equality in Corporeality: All bodies share the essence of corporeality, yet they differ in size, position, shape, and nature. This specific assignment of attributes to entities equal in their fundamental essence necessitates the Ancient Creator.

This concludes the signs derived from the celestial bodies.

Sign 2: The States of the Earth (Arḍ)

This sign has two chapters.

Chapter 1: Explaining the States of the Earth The differences in Earth's conditions stem from two main causes: the motion of the celestial sphere, and habitation/cultivation.

Cause 1: Variation due to Celestial Motion (Based on Latitude): The Earth’s conditions change based on latitude relative to the celestial poles and the ecliptic.

1. Equator (Zero Latitude): The celestial equator intersects the horizon at right angles. All daily circles are bisected. Day and night are equal. No place has perpetual day or night. The ecliptic passes through the zenith twice a year (at the equinoxes).
2. Latitudes with Rising North Pole: The North Pole rises above the horizon. The celestial equator is bisected by the horizon, but other daily circles are cut unequally, resulting in longer days in the north and shorter nights. Stars near the North Pole have perpetual visibility; those near the South Pole have perpetual concealment. The Sun passes the zenith twice a year at points north of the equator equal to the latitude.
3. Latitude equals Maximum Obliquity: The rising and setting of the ecliptic poles cease; they only touch the horizon. The ecliptic passes through the zenith only at the summer solstice.
4. Latitude greater than Maximum Obliquity: The ecliptic poles no longer rise or set; one pole remains perpetually visible, and the other perpetually hidden.
5. Latitude equals Full Obliquity (Tropic of Cancer/Capricorn): The solstices touch the horizon but do not rise or set. At the vernal equinox, the ecliptic lies flat on the horizon, causing the entire zodiac from Capricorn to Cancer to rise and set simultaneously. Night ceases during the summer solstice, and day during the winter solstice.
6. Latitude greater than Tropic: A section of the ecliptic (centered on the summer solstice) remains perpetually visible (daytime), and the opposite section (centered on the winter solstice) remains perpetually hidden (nighttime). Retrograde motion of the zodiacal signs occurs here.
7. Poles (90 Degrees Latitude): The celestial equator lies on the horizon. Motion becomes purely rotational (raḥwiyyah). Rising and setting cease. Half the zodiac is perpetually visible (Northern half), and the other half perpetually hidden (Southern half). Half the year is day, and half is night.

Cause 2: Variation due to Habitation (ʿImārah): The Earth is divided into North and South by the equator. A great circle perpendicular to the equator divides it into four quadrants. Habitation is found in the northern quadrants.

• The longitude of habitation extends nearly half the circumference, starting from the West (though the exact starting point varies among geographers).
• The latitude of habitation extends up to 66 degrees from the equator (Ptolemy suggested up to 82 degrees, including regions south of the equator).
• This inhabited area is divided into seven longitudinal zones called Aqālīm (Climates).

Cause 3: Variation due to Terrestrial Nature: Differences between land/sea, plain/mountain, rock/sand, lowlands/highlands. (These were detailed in the exegesis of verse 22).

Proof that the Earth is a Sphere:

1. Length (East-West): If the Earth’s surface were flat, the sun would illuminate or darken the entire surface simultaneously upon rising or setting, which is not observed. Eclipses observed in different longitudes occur at different times, proving the Earth is curved in length.
2. Shadow during Lunar Eclipse: The Earth’s shadow cast upon the Moon during an eclipse is always circular. Since the shadow takes the shape of the object casting it, the Earth must be spherical from all sides.
3. Pole Star Altitude: If the Earth were concave or flat, the altitude of the celestial pole would not change as one travels North-South, contradicting observation. If it were concave, the pole would eventually disappear. Since the pole's altitude changes consistently with latitude, the Earth must be spherical in latitude as well.

Objections to Earth’s Sphericity and Replies:

1. Objection: If spherical, its center would coincide with the world's center, meaning water (which seeks the center) would cover the entire surface.
   • Reply: Divine providence (ʿināyah) caused one side to emerge as land for habitation, like an island in the sea. Water flows to the lowest depressions.
2. Objection: The existence of high mountains and deep valleys contradicts perfect sphericity.
   • Reply: These topographical features are negligible compared to the Earth's overall size, similar to small hairs or grains placed on a wooden sphere the size of a cubit; they do not negate its sphericity.

Chapter 2: Inferring the Creator from the Earth’s States This inference is easier than that from the heavens because opponents might argue that the celestial states (size, position) are necessary and immutable. However, we observe constant change in the Earth’s conditions (location, color, taste, nature). The mountains and rocks can be broken and moved. Since the Earth’s attributes are contingent and changeable, they require an ancient, knowing Director.

Sign 3: The Alternation of Night and Day (Ikhtilāf al-Layl wa al-Nahār)

Issue 1: Meanings of Ikhtilāf

1. Succession: From khalafahu yakhlifuhu (one follows the other). Night and day succeed each other in coming and going. This is supported by {وَهُوَ الَّذِي جَعَلَ اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ خِلْفَةً} (He is the One Who made the night and the day a succession).
2. Difference: The difference in length, darkness/light, increase, and decrease.
3. My Third View: They differ not only in time (length/shortness) but also in place (longitude/latitude). If the Earth is a sphere, every hour marks a different time zone (dawn, noon, afternoon, etc.). Furthermore, latitude differences cause seasonal variations in day/night length.

Proof from Night and Day for the Creator:

1. Their variation is linked to the Sun's motion, a great sign.
2. The resulting seasonal changes (Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter) are great signs.
3. The ordering of human affairs—seeking livelihood by day and rest by night—is a great sign.
4. The cooperation between night and day, despite their opposition, in achieving human welfare is a great sign; opposition usually leads to corruption, not cooperation.
5. The people’s turning to sleep at the beginning of night resembles the first blowing of the Trumpet (death), and their waking at sunrise resembles the second blowing (resurrection).
6. The splitting of night’s darkness by the gradual appearance of dawn (like clear water flowing into murky water without mixing) is a great sign, referenced in {فَالِقُ الْإِصْبَاحِ} (He splits the dawn).
7. The precise measure of day and night, tailored to benefit creation. (E.g., at the poles, six months of day and six months of night, which prevents maturation and livelihood).
8. The appearance of light upon sunrise: If this light is created by God's power directly, it shows His power. If the Sun causes the light in the opposite body, singling out the Sun for this property among similar bodies proves the Creator.

Objection: Could a powerful angel move the celestial bodies, making the alternation of day/night not a sign of God?

• Reply: If we hold that human power cannot create, the question is resolved. If we follow the Mu'tazila view, Abu Hashim refuted this possibility by textual evidence (samʿ).

Sign 4: The Ships Sailing on the Sea for the Benefit of People

Issue 1: Linguistic Notes

• Fulk (Ship/Vessel): Originally means rotation/roundness. A ship is called falk because it rotates easily on water. Fulk can be singular (masculine) or plural (feminine).
• Baḥr (Sea): Named for its vastness (istibḥār).

Issue 2: The Five Great Seas (According to Al-Jubā’ī and others):

1. Sea of India (or China Sea): Extends East-West from Abyssinia to India/China.
2. Sea of the West (The Ocean, Uqyānūs): Connects to the Indian Sea, its ends known only in the West/North near the Russians and Slavs.
3. Sea of Syria, Rome, and Egypt.
4. Sea of Nīṭish.
5. Sea of Jurjān (Caspian Sea).

Issue 3: Inferring the Creator from Sailing Ships

1. God created the tools necessary for constructing ships, without which construction would be impossible.
2. God created the winds necessary to move them, completing their benefit.
3. God controls these winds so they do not become destructive storms.
4. God strengthens the hearts of those who undertake these perilous voyages.
5. God created needs in every region, compelling people to undertake these dangerous journeys for trade and mutual benefit.
6. God subjugated the sea to carry vessels, despite the sea’s immense power when agitated by storms.
7. Great rivers (like the Jihūn and Sayḥūn) constantly flow into the small Lake Khwarizm, yet the lake never overflows, indicating God’s precise knowledge of managing this water.
8. God places great animals in the seas but saves the ships and delivers them safely.
9. The phenomenon of two distinct waters meeting without mixing ({مَرَجَ الْبَحْرَيْنِ يَلْتَقِيَانِ * بَيْنَهُمَا بَرْزَخٌ لَّا يَبْغِيَانِ}), one fresh and one salty ({هَٰذَا عَذْبٌ فُرَاتٌ سَائِغٌ شَرَابُهُ وَهَٰذَا مِلْحٌ أُجَاجٌ}), proves the need for a Preserver and Determiner.

Issue 5: Permissibility The phrase {بِمَا يَنفَعُ النَّاسَ} (with that which benefits people) indicates the permissibility of using ships for travel, earning a livelihood, trade, and enjoying permissible pleasures.

Sign 5: Rain and the Revival of the Earth

Proof for the Creator:

1. The qualities of water (thinness, moisture, sweetness) are created only by God.
2. God made water the cause of life for humans and most benefits ({وَجَعَلْنَا مِنَ الْمَاءِ كُلَّ شَيْءٍ حَيٍّ}).
3. God made it the cause of sustenance ({وَفِي السَّمَاءِ رِزْقُكُمْ}).
4. The clouds, holding vast amounts of water, remain suspended in the air against their nature (heaviness), which is a great sign.
5. The rain descends in measured amounts, proportional to need, often following supplication (e.g., Noah’s people).
6. The Earth, appearing dead and dry, shakes, swells, and produces beautiful vegetation upon the descent of water ({فَإِذَا أَنزَلْنَا عَلَيْهَا الْمَاءَ اهْتَزَّتْ وَرَبَتْ}).

On the Origin of Rain: We affirm what God states: it descends from the sky. If He can hold water in clouds, He can hold it in the heavens. The theory that evaporation from Earth’s seas rises, cools, condenses, and falls is physically possible, but affirming it requires denying the Free Agent and affirming the eternity of the world, which is disbelief.

Meaning of Revival After Death: This revival refers to: (1) The appearance of plants necessary for animal life. (2) The provision of food for humans. (3) The precise measure of growth according to need (as God guarantees sustenance for all creatures). (4) The production of varied colors, tastes, and scents suitable for clothing and use. (5) The beauty, freshness, and splendor imparted to the Earth.

The term "revival after death" is metaphorical, as true life and death apply only to sentient beings. However, the resulting beauty and growth are metaphorically called life.

Proof from Revival: (1) The planting itself, beyond human capacity in its perfection. (2) The countless variety of colors. (3) The variety of tastes. (4) The regularity of these events occurring at specific times.

Sign 6: Scattering of Creatures (Wa Baththa Fīhā Min Kull Dābbah)

This refers to the creation and propagation of all living creatures, including humans (as in {وَبَثَّ مِنْهُمَا رِجَالًا كَثِيرًا وَنِسَاءً}).

Proof from Human Creation:

1. Variety in a Small Space: The analogy of the chessboard (one span by one span) having near-infinite possible arrangements, yet the human face (one span by one span) has fixed features (eyes, nose, eyebrows) that never change position, while no two people in the world are exactly alike—this demonstrates immense Power and Wisdom.
2. Development from Semen (Nuṭfah): The force shaping the semen into a complete human must either possess knowledge and wisdom (which is absurd, as the fully formed human is more capable than the initial drop) or act by mere nature/causality. If by nature in a uniform substance, the result should be uniform (like a sphere), which is false. Thus, a Determiner is required for the transformation into blood, flesh, and organs.
3. Anatomical Complexity: The intricate structure of animal bodies is too vast to detail here, as covered in specialized books.
4. Reversal of Elements: Physicians note that the highest element is fire (hot/dry), followed by air, water, and earth (heaviest, at the bottom). Yet, in the human body, the structure is inverted: the skull (cold/dry, like Earth) is highest, followed by the brain (cold/moist, like Water), then the spirit/breath (hot/moist, like Air), and finally the heart (hot/dry, like Fire). This reversal of elemental order proves the power of the Designer.
5. Protection of Creation: A craftsman protects his delicate work from dust, water, air, and fire. God protected His creation: Adam from dust ({خَلَقَهُ مِن تُرَابٍ}), life from water ({جَعَلْنَا مِنَ الْمَاءِ كُلَّ شَيْءٍ حَيٍّ}), the spirit from air ({فَنَفَخْنَا فِيهِ مِن رُّوحِنَا}), and the form from clay/fire ({خَلَقْتَ مِن طِينٍ كَهَيْئَةِ الطَّيْرِ}). This shows His work differs from all others.
6. Infant Development: A newborn dies instantly if suffocated, yet survived the confined womb without breath. Initially, the infant lacks understanding, confusing harmful and beneficial things. Yet, upon maturity, humans possess the highest intellect. If this were mere nature, the smartest at birth would be the smartest at maturity. Since the opposite occurs, this development is a gift from the Wise Creator.
7. Diversity of Languages and Natures: The vast differences in human languages, temperaments, and appearances (which prevent social chaos) are strong proofs.

Sign 7: The Turning of the Winds (Taṣrīf al-Riyāḥ)

Issue 1: Proof from the Winds

1. Winds are created with a nature (lightness/thinness) that allows them to be directed. God directs them for immense benefit to humans, animals, and plants.
   • Necessity of Air: Air is the substance of the soul; its cessation for a moment causes death. The principle is: the more essential a need, the easier its provision. Air is the most essential, so it is the easiest to obtain. Water is next, then food, then rare medicines, then jewels. This gradation proves God’s mercy.
2. Without wind motion, ships could not sail. No one can command the wind to change direction or initiate motion from stillness.

Issue 2-5: Linguistic Notes on Riyāḥ (Winds)

• Taṣrīf (Turning/Direction) is often used in the sense of the object being directed (i.e., directing the winds).
• Rīḥ (Wind) is derived from Rūḥ (Spirit/Comfort), as wind often brings ease and comfort.
• The four cardinal winds are North, South, East (Ṣabā), and West (Dabūr).
• There are variations in recitation (singular vs. plural) for Rīḥ/Riyāḥ. The plural form often implies mercy ({مُبَشِّرَاتٍ} - bringing good tidings), while the singular is used for destructive winds ({الرِّيحَ الْعَقِيمَ} - the sterile wind).

Sign 8: The Clouds Subjected (Al-Saḥāb al-Musakhkhar)

The clouds are named saḥāb because they spread out (insihāb) in the air. Subjugation (taskhīr) is proven because:

1. Water is naturally heavy and should fall; its suspension in the air requires a compelling force.
2. If clouds remained constantly, they would cause excessive rain and darkness (harm). If they vanished, drought would occur (harm). Their measured presence according to need is subjugation.
3. God drives the clouds via the winds to where He wills.

Issue 1: The Meaning of Āyāt

1. The plural Āyāt (Signs) can refer to the totality of these eight things, or to each one individually.
2. Each sign proves multiple things:
   • Their coming into being (after non-existence) proves the Mover and His Power (since a necessary cause would produce a perpetual effect).
   • Their perfection and order prove the Knowledge of the Creator.
   • Their limitation to specific times proves the Will of the Creator.
   • Their coherence and lack of corruption prove the Oneness of the Creator ({لَوْ كَانَ فِيهِمَا آلِهَةٌ إِلَّا اللَّهُ لَفَسَدَتَا}).
3. They also prove the necessity of obeying and thanking the Benefactor for those who hold that thanking the benefactor is rationally obligatory.
4. Even the smallest, indivisible parts of these great bodies, which are themselves contingent (requiring a specific time and attribute), point to the necessity of the described Creator. Everything other than God is contingent and thus testifies to His existence and Oneness.

Why are these signs specified for "People Who Use Reason"? Only those capable of reflection and deduction can use these signs to establish the Oneness, Justice, and Wisdom of God, leading them to gratitude and obedience.

These eight items are outwardly worldly blessings (niʿam dunyawiyyah). When the rational person reflects upon them to know the Creator, they become religious blessings (niʿam dīniyyah). Just as enjoying them physically requires sound senses, enjoying them spiritually requires sound intellects and insight into the inner eye.

Qadi Abd al-Jabbār’s Points:

1. The verse proves that truth cannot be attained merely through imitation or custom.
2. If knowledge of God were necessary (ḍarūrī) or intuitive (ilhāmī), these things would not need to be described as "signs."
3. While all things indicate the Creator, God specifically mentioned these eight because they combine the quality of being a proof with the quality of being a blessing upon the accountable, making them more effective in the heart.

This verse contrasts the believers, whose love is solely directed toward Allah, with the idolaters who set up rivals (andād) and love them with the same intensity they should reserve for God. The believers, however, possess a love for God that is far stronger.

The verse concludes with a warning to the wrongdoers: If they could witness the punishment in the Hereafter, they would realize that all power (al-Quwwah) belongs absolutely to Allah, and that His punishment is severe.