Al-Baqarah: (7) Allah has set a seal upon...

It is to be noted that after Allah the Exalted explained in the first verse that they do not believe, He informs in this verse of the reason why they did not believe, which is the sealing (الختم). The discussion here involves several issues:

Issue 1: Sealing and Concealing

• Sealing (الختم) and Concealing (الكتم) are related, as securing something by striking a seal upon it serves to conceal and cover it, preventing access or observation.
• Veil/Covering (الغشاوة) is derived from ghashāhu (he covered it). This structure implies something that envelops an object, like a band or a turban.

Issue 2: The Nature of the Seal

People differed regarding this seal.

For those who believe that the actions of servants are created by Allah, this verse is straightforward according to their doctrine. They have two opinions:

1. The Seal is the creation of disbelief in the hearts of the disbelievers.
2. The Seal is the creation of a dā'iyah (inclination/motive) which, when combined with power, becomes a necessary cause for the occurrence of disbelief.

Elaboration on the second view (The necessity of a determining factor):

A person capable of disbelief is either capable of abandoning it or not.

• If they are not capable of abandoning it, then the power to disbelieve necessitates disbelief. Thus, creating the power to disbelieve necessitates creating the disbelief itself.
• If they are capable of abandoning it, then the proportion of that power towards the act of disbelief and towards abandoning it is equal. Whether this power results in the action instead of abandonment depends on the addition of a determining factor (مرجح) or not.
  • If it does not depend on a factor, then the possible action occurs without a determinant, which invalidates inference from the possible to the effective cause, implying the negation of the Creator—which is impossible.
  • If it does depend on a determinant, that determinant is either from Allah, from the servant, or neither.
    • It cannot be from the servant, as this leads to an infinite regress (تسلسل).
    • It cannot be from neither, as this implies something arising without a cause, invalidating the belief in a Creator.

Therefore, it is established that the servant's power becoming the source of a specific act depends on a determinant originating from Allah.

When this determinant is added to the power, the effect of that power on the specific outcome becomes either necessary (واجب), permissible (جائز), or impossible (ممتنع). The latter two are false:

• It cannot be permissible (جائز), because if it were, it would be rationally sound for the combination of power and the determinant to sometimes result in the effect and sometimes not. If this occurred, the specification of one time over the other (when the effect occurs vs. when it doesn't) would require either an additional factor or no factor. If it requires another factor, then that factor becomes the true determinant, contradicting the initial assumption that the combination was the sole determinant. If it requires no factor, then the combination sometimes causes the effect and sometimes doesn't, without any distinction—this implies the possibility of a possible thing occurring without a determinant, which is impossible.
• It cannot be impossible (ممتنع), as that would mean the determinant for existence is also a determinant for non-existence, which is impossible.

Thus, when the determinant is present, the effect becomes necessary arising from the combination of power and the determinant. This necessitates Compulsion (الجبر), because before the determinant, the action was impossible, and after it, it became necessary.

If this is established, then creating the inclination (dā'iyah) that necessitates disbelief in the heart is a seal upon the heart and a prevention from accepting faith. Allah decreed they would not believe, and immediately mentioned what acts as the necessary cause for it, as knowledge of the cause leads to knowledge of the effect. This is the view of those who attribute all created things to Allah.

The Mu'tazila argue that this verse cannot be interpreted as preventing faith. They cite the arguments already mentioned in the first verse, and add:

• Allah rebukes the disbelievers who claim that there are coverings (kinān) and seals (ghishāwāh) preventing them from faith (e.g., Quran 4:155, 41:5).
• Therefore, the seal and veil must be interpreted metaphorically in other ways:

1. Habitual State: When they persistently turn away from guidance, it becomes like a natural disposition or habit (alfa). Their state is likened to someone being prevented or blocked. Their sight is as if blinded, and their hearing is blocked, but this is attributed to Allah because the firmness of this state is like a created quality (citing Quran 155:155, 83:14, 9:77).
   2. Minimal Cause: The Devil or the disbeliever is the true sealer, but since Allah is the one who empowered them, the action is attributed to Him, similar to attributing an action to its immediate cause.
   3. Context of Revelation: Since their turning away occurred precisely when Allah presented the proofs, the action is attributed to Allah because its occurrence coincided with His presentation of evidence (like Quran 9:125: "It increased them only in defilement").
   4. Extreme Stubbornness: They reached such a degree of disbelief that faith is only possible through coercion (qasr or ilja'). Since Allah does not impose this to preserve accountability, the abandonment of coercion is expressed as a "seal," indicating they reached the utmost limit of obstinacy.
   5. Sarcastic Recitation (Hikaayah): It is a recounting of what the disbelievers themselves claimed mockingly (e.g., Quran 41:5).
   6. Testimony/Witnessing: The seal from Allah is His testimony that they will not believe, and that their hearts will not comprehend the message, and their ears will not heed the truth. Just as one might ask someone to "seal" what another says, meaning to confirm and testify to its truth.
   7. Specific Punishment in This World: This seal applies to specific groups of disbelievers as an immediate punishment in this life, similar to the punishment of the Sabbath-breakers (2:65) or the forty years of wandering (5:26). However, if this state leads to incomprehension, accountability is lifted, just as it is lifted from the mentally impaired. Allah may create a barrier to understanding if it is better for them, but in that state, they are not accountable.
   8. Affliction/Distress: The seal and veil might be physical impediments that cause distress, anxiety, and narrowness of the chest, which then acts as a barrier to faith, similar to what happened to the Children of Israel during their wandering. This serves as a sign for the Prophet (PBUH), like the plague sent upon Pharaoh's people. This is all contingent upon what Allah knows to be best for the servants.
   9. Punishment in the Hereafter: This sealing may occur in the Hereafter, as indicated by verses describing them being gathered blind, dumb, and deaf (17:97, 20:102, 36:65).
   10. Mark for Angels (Al-Hasan al-Basri/Al-Jubba'i/Al-Qadi): The seal is a mark placed on the hearts and hearing of disbelievers, enabling angels to recognize them as eternally disbelieving. Conversely, believers have a mark recognized by angels, leading them to love and seek forgiveness for the believer (as in "Allah has written faith in their hearts"). This mark serves either the angels (by repelling them from disbelief) or the accountable person (by encouraging faith, knowing the inhabitants of heaven love them if they believe, or deterring them from disbelief if they know the angels will hate them if they persist). This seal does not prevent faith, just as sealing a book does not prevent opening it. It is like writing "disbeliever" on their forehead; if they believe, they can remove that mark. The heart and hearing are specified because auditory proofs come through hearing, and rational proofs through the heart.
       • Regarding sight: If the seal is a mark, why is the eye not marked? Because the literal meaning of ghishāwah is a covering that prevents sight, which contradicts the state of disbelievers who still see. Thus, it must be metaphorical, likening their state to one who cannot benefit from sight regarding guidance.

This summarizes the various opinions on this matter.

Issue 3: Related Terminology

The terms related to sealing are: sealing (الطبع), covering (الكنان), rust/film (الرين) on the heart, deafness/blockage (الوقر) in the ears, and veiling (الغشاوة) over the sight.

The verses fall into two categories:

1. Verses indicating the occurrence of these states: (e.g., Quran 83:14, 6:25, 9:87, 4:155, 41:4, 36:70, 16:80, 2:10).
2. Verses indicating no absolute prevention: (e.g., 17:94, 18:29, 2:286, 22:78, 2:28, 3:71).

These two sets of textual proofs appear contradictory. Rational proofs were alluded to earlier. This issue is one of the greatest Islamic controversies, branching widely. When Imam Abu al-Qasim al-Ansari was asked about declaring the Mu'tazila as disbelievers on this issue, he said no, because they sought to purify Allah. When asked about the Ahl al-Sunnah, he said no, because they glorified Him. Both parties sought to establish Allah's majesty, but the Ahl al-Sunnah focused on Might (العظمة), asserting He must be the sole originator. The Mu'tazila focused on Wisdom (الحكمة), arguing that such ugliness is unfit for His presence.

A Deeper Secret: Establishing the Divinity of God leads to Compulsion (Jabr), because if action didn't depend on a determinant, the possible would occur without one (negating the Creator). If it depends on a determinant, Compulsion follows. Establishing the Messenger leads to Free Will (Qudrah).

Furthermore, returning to sound nature and primary intellect:

• What is equal in existence and non-existence requires a determinant for preference, implying Compulsion.
• Yet, we have an intuitive distinction between voluntary and involuntary movements, and an undeniable judgment on the goodness of praise and the badness of blame, which implies the Mu'tazila view.

Thus, this issue is in conflict based on: necessary knowledge, theoretical knowledge, glorification of God (Might vs. Wisdom), Tawhid vs. Tanzih (Purification), and textual evidence. These complexities explain why the issue is profound and difficult. We ask Allah to guide us to the truth and grant us a good end.

Issue 5: Scope of Sealing and Veiling (Al-Kashshaf)

The wording allows for the hearing to be included under the ruling of sealing, and also under veiling. However, the primary inclusion is under sealing, based on the verse: "And He set a seal upon his hearing and his heart, and placed over his sight a covering" (45:23), and because they stopped at the hearing without mentioning the heart again.

Issue 6: Repetition of the Preposition for Hearing

The repetition of the preposition ('alā) in "and upon their hearing" emphasizes the severity of the seal in both places (heart/hearing and sight/hearing).

Issue 6 (Second Instance): Number Agreement (Heart/Sight Plural, Hearing Singular)

Hearts and sights are pluralized, while hearing is singular, for several reasons:

1. Singular Hearing: Each person has one hearing faculty. This is like saying "two rams came with their heads" (meaning each had one head). This is done when ambiguity is avoided.
2. Hearing as a Source Noun: Sam'un (hearing) is fundamentally a masdar (verbal noun), and verbal nouns are generally not pluralized (e.g., ṣawm for two men). This respects the original form, supported by the pluralization of the ears (adhān) in another verse (41:5).
3. Implied Plural: Assuming a deleted possessive modifier, meaning "upon the faculties of their hearing."
4. Sibawayh's View: The word sam' is singular in form, but the preceding and succeeding words are plural, indicating the intended meaning is plural. (Examples given: darknesses/lights, right/left). The poet used the singular form for the plural meaning. (Ibn Abi 'Abla recited it in the plural: 'alā asmā'ihim).

Issue 7: Superiority of Hearing vs. Sight

• Argument for Hearing's Superiority: Hearing is mentioned before sight in the Quran, indicating preference. Hearing is a prerequisite for prophethood (no deaf messenger was sent, though blind ones existed). Hearing transmits the results of intellect from one person to another, thus completing reason through knowledge. Sight is limited to sensory perceptions. Hearing operates in six directions, unlike sight. If hearing ceases, speech ceases; if sight ceases, speech does not cease.
• Argument for Sight's Superiority: The apparatus of sight is nobler. The object of sight is light, while the object of hearing is air/wind.

Issue 8: The Heart as the Seat of Knowledge

The phrase "Allah has set a seal upon their hearts" indicates that the locus of knowledge is the heart. This was detailed in the exegesis of the verse "The Trustworthy Spirit brought it down upon your heart" (26:193) in Surah Ash-Shu'ara.

Issue 9: Sight vs. Insight (Al-Kashshaf)

The author of Al-Kashshaf states that sight (basar) is the light of the eye by which one perceives visible things, just as insight (basirah) is the light of the heart by which one contemplates. Both are subtle essences created by Allah containing the instruments for seeing and contemplating. However, the author notes that the Mu'tazila followers would not accept this explanation, and a proper discussion of sight requires complex research unsuitable for this context.

Issue 10: Readings of Ghishāwah

The word ghishāwah has several recorded readings (with different vowel markings on the initial letter and the final tā'), all meaning "covering" (ghita'). Related terms include ghāshiyah (calamity) and ghashiya 'alayhi (he lost consciousness). Ghashyān is also a euphemism for sexual intercourse.

Issue 11: The Meaning of Punishment ('Adhāb) and Greatness ('Aẓīm)

• Punishment ('Adhāb) and Retribution (Nikāl): They are similar in structure and meaning, as a'dhaba 'an shay' means to restrain from something, like nakala 'anhu. Sweet water ('adhb) quenches thirst, unlike salt. Punishment ('adhāb) is generally defined as a severe pain that deters the perpetrator from repeating the offense.
• Great ('Aẓīm) vs. Big (Kabīr): 'Aẓīm is the opposite of haqīr (contemptible), while kabīr is the opposite of ṣaghīr (small). Thus, 'aẓīm is conceptually "above" kabīr. Both are used for bodies and events.
• Indefiniteness of 'Aẓīm: The indefinite form implies a type of covering over their sight that is not commonly known—the covering of willful blindness to Allah's signs. They also face a great affliction whose nature is known only to Allah.

Issue 12: The Goodness of Punishing Disbelievers

Muslims agree that it is good for Allah to punish disbelievers. Some (Mu'tazila) argue against it, interpreting "a great punishment" (2:26) as something they deserve, but Allah's generosity necessitates pardon.

1. Punishment is Harm devoid of Benefit:
   • It is certainly harm.
   • It lacks benefit, whether for Allah (impossible, as He is above need) or for others. If the benefit is for the punished person, it's impossible (harm is not benefit). If it's for another person, it's prioritizing the lesser good (harming one) over the greater good (benefiting another), which is irrational. Furthermore, Allah can achieve any intended benefit without harming anyone. Thus, punishment is harm without benefit, which is inherently ugly by rational intuition, even more so than harmful lies or harmful ignorance. Since Allah is Wise, He does not do ugly things.
2. Punishment Follows Foreknown Disobedience: Allah knows the disbeliever will not believe (6:6). If he is commanded, he will only disobey. If this disobedience leads to punishment, then the command itself becomes ugly because it necessitates a harm devoid of benefit. Therefore, the command itself is ugly, and the Wise does not issue ugly commands. Either the command never occurred, or it doesn't lead to punishment.
3. Purpose of Creation: If creation is for benefit, Allah would not command what leads to the opposite, knowing the outcome. If creation is neither for benefit nor harm, it is mere futility. If creation is for harm, He would not be Merciful and Generous.
4. Allah Creates the Motives for Sin: Since Allah creates the inclinations that necessitate sin (as established in Issue 2, leading to Compulsion), it is ugly for Him to punish for actions He compelled.
   • Further argument: If two people receive commands, one obeys and one disobeys, and they are rewarded/punished differently, the difference lies in their inherent disposition (intelligence, diligence, etc.). Since these dispositions are created by Allah, the resulting obedience/disobedience is by His decree. It is unjust to create the sinner with harshness and ignorance and then punish him, while creating the obedient person with wisdom and knowledge and rewarding him.
5. Self-Inflicted Loss: Commands are for the servant's benefit (6:17). If the servant sins, he forfeits his own benefit. It is irrational for a Wise being to inflict severe punishment because someone forfeited a lesser benefit for themselves. It is like a master cutting off a slave's limbs because the slave failed to earn a small coin for himself, with no benefit to the master.
6. Eternity of Punishment: Even a human who seeks revenge tires of it. If punishment is eternal, it is unjust, especially since the disbeliever's lifespan of sin is finite compared to eternity.
7. Repentance: If a disbeliever repents in this world, Allah accepts it (e.g., "Call upon Me, I will answer you" 40:60). Why, then, is repentance rejected in the Hereafter, where their pleas are met only with "Be gone into it, and speak not to Me" (23:108)?

1. Textual vs. Rational Proofs: Textual proofs (like this verse) do not yield certainty, whereas rational proofs do. The uncertain cannot contradict the certain. Textual proofs rely on uncertain foundations (transmission of language, grammar, etc.). Since rational proofs contradict these apparent meanings, the textual proofs must be interpreted as uncertain.
2. Promise vs. Threat: For humans, reneging on a threat is often seen as better than reneging on a promise. The Ahl al-Sunnah hold that Allah's promise of reward is binding. However, His threat of punishment is not necessarily binding; it serves to deter the servant. Just as a father threatens his son with severe punishment to ensure obedience, he may refrain from carrying it out due to compassion.
   • Rebuttal to the charge of lying: Not all falsehood is ugly; only harmful falsehood is. Furthermore, general statements in the Quran are qualified (e.g., exceptions to commands), and ambiguous verses are interpreted metaphorically; neither is called lying.
3. Conditionality: Threats against sinners are implicitly conditional upon their not repenting or Allah not pardoning them, even if this condition is not explicitly stated. Alternatively, the verses mean they deserve the punishment, and the news is about the desert, not necessarily the actual occurrence.

End of Verse 7